Reptiles evolved from amphibious ancestors which left the water and became terrestrial. Snakes pick up vibrations from both the air and the ground, and can differentiate the two, using a complex system of internal resonances (perhaps involving the scales). Snake skin and scales help retain moisture in the animal's body. The ventral (or belly) scales, which are large and oblong, are especially low-friction, and some arboreal species can use the edges to grip branches. Rainbow boas get their name from the coloration of their scales caused by iridescence. The scales of a snake primarily serve to reduce friction as it moves, since friction is the major source of energy loss in snake locomotion. Snake scales are also to be found as motifs in fiction, art and films. The use of snake-skin in manufacture of purses, apparel and other articles led to large-scale killing of snakes, giving rise to advocacy for use of artificial snake-skin. Vivid scale patterns have been thought to have influenced early art. Snakes have been part and parcel of culture and religion. The arrangement of scales is used to identify snake species. This permits replacement of old worn out skin, disposal of parasites and is thought to allow the snake to grow. Snakes periodically moult their scaly skins and acquire new ones. Scales have been modified over time to serve other functions such as " eyelash" fringes, and protective covers for the eyes with the most distinctive modification being the rattle of the North American rattlesnakes. The simple or complex colouration patterns (which help in camouflage and anti-predator display) are a property of the underlying skin, but the folded nature of scaled skin allows bright skin to be concealed between scales then revealed in order to startle predators. A scale protects the body of the snake, aids it in locomotion, allows moisture to be retained within, alters the surface characteristics such as roughness to aid in camouflage, and in some cases even aids in prey capture (such as Acrochordus). Snakes are entirely covered with scales or scutes of various shapes and sizes, known as snakeskin as a whole. Snakes, like other reptiles, have skin covered in scales. Scales of a black-tailed rattlesnake ( Crotalus molossus). Rowling's Harry Potter series and the Disney film adaptations of Cinderella, The Little Mermaid, and the Lion King.Scales covering the skin of snakes Elaborately shaped scales on the head of a Vine snake, Ahaetulla nasuta. Students should also review or have read/watched the following modern works: J. Ideally, students will have had at least some experience with Shakespeare: though this is not required, students should at the very least review the basic plot and story elements of Romeo and Juliet. Some background in English is highly recommended. This will apply most directly to essay writing, though it can also relate to developing unique perspectives in students' creative work. This class focuses on learning how to think outside the conventional English box when approaching literary analysis: instead of relying exclusively on basic critical perspectives such as formalist analysis (syntax, tone, imagery, style, etc.), historical/biographical analysis, gender or political theory, and overly common themes (death, love, power, hope, coming-of-age, etc.), we will discuss how to develop more original and unexpected critical approaches to authors like Shakespeare and J.K. Finally, case studies on 3D printed kidneys and artificial lungs developed at Yale will be analyzed, as well as institutional methods and debates in promoting tissue engineering research. Techniques such as matrix modeling, materials engineering, and ex vivo growth and implantation will be introduced. Surgical replacement or addition of tissues and the challenges associated with them will be presented, followed by the aspects of the tissue engineering that can address these issues. Historical forms of tissue replacement and their strengths/flaws will be discussed, ranging from early wooden prosthetics to modern prosthetics. The wide variety of cell types will be addressed, as well as the associated engineering challenge of creating proper mimics of such great physiological diversity. This course will introduce the concept of tissue engineering, and the differential expression of the genetic code in forming disparate tissues. In 2011, surgeon Anthony Atala 3D-printed a rough prototype of a human kidney on-stage before a TEDx talk audience, and immediately brought forth a wave of renewed focus on 3D-printed body parts and their applications in medicine.
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